Title: Triplanetary

Title: Triplanetary Title Record # 1197
Author: Edward E. Smith
Date: 1948-00-00
Type: NOVEL
Series: Lensman
Series Number: 1
Webpages: librivox.org-1, librivox.org-2, Wikipedia-EN
Language: English

Note: Triplanetary (1948) divides the story into "Book One: Dawn", "Book Two: The World War", and "Book Three: Triplanetary". "Dawn" and "The World War" are new material. The Triplanetary section is revised and expanded from Triplanetary (1934). The 1934 version has 57,952 words while the revised/expanded version is 61,979 words. The entire novel, including the "Dawn" and "The World War" sections is 92,566 words. Overall, the new material and changes were to tie Triplanetary into the Lensman universe and is the first of two prequel novels for the series. The second prequel is The First Lensman published in 1950.

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Other Titles

Variant Titles

Translations

Serializations

Year	Title
1948	Triplanetary [as by Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.]
1954	Triplanetary: A Tale of Cosmic Adventure [as by Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.]
1965	Triplanetary [as by E. E. Smith, Ph.D.]
1966	Triplanetary [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]

Year	Language	Title
1960^ⓘTranslated by Botho Rainer Doddenhof	German	Die Planetenbasis [as by E. E. Smith]
1969^ⓘTranslated by Thomas Schlück (using the same title). DO NOT MERGE with previous title / translation.	German	Die Planetenbasis
1972^ⓘTranslated by Richard Chomet	French	Triplanétaire^?Triplanetaire [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
1979	Portuguese	Triplanetária [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
1991	Italian	Triplanetario [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
2002^ⓘTranslated by Román Goicoechea Luna	Spanish	Triplanetaria [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
2017^ⓘTranslated by Thomas Schlück. This is the same translation as that published by Heyne under a slightly different title and byline.	German	Die Planeten-Basis [as by E. E. Smith]

Year	Title
2009^ⓘChapter 7: "Pirates of Space"	Triplanetary (Part 1 of 4) [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
2010^ⓘChapter 8: "In Roger's Planetoid"	Triplanetary (Part 2 of 4) [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
2010^ⓘChapter 9: "Fleet Against Planetoid"	Triplanetary (Part 3 of 4) [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]
2010^ⓘChapter 10: "Within the Red Veil"	Triplanetary (Part 4 of 4) [as by E. E. 'Doc' Smith]

Publications

Displaying all variants and translations • Do not display translations • Do not display variants or translations

Title	Date	Author/Editor	Publisher/Pub. Series	ISBN/Catalog ID	Price	Pages	Format	Type	Cover Artist
Triplanetary: A Tale of Cosmic Adventure	1948-00-00	Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.	Fantasy Press		$3.00^?$: US dollar	287	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	novel	A. J. Donnell
Triplanetary	1950-00-00	Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.	Fantasy Press		$3.00^?$: US dollar	287	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	novel	A. J. Donnell
Triplanetary: A Tale of Cosmic Adventure	1954-00-00	Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.	T. V. Boardman		9/6^?Prior to decimilisation (1968-1971), UK books were priced in shillings, or shillings and pence, where 20 shillings equals one pound and 12 old pence equals one shilling. Shillings were indicated with a variety of suffixes, e.g. 3s, 3', 3", 3/ all mean 3 shillings. Any number after that is additional pence, usually 6 (half a shilling) but sometimes 3 or 9 (a quarter of a shilling or three-quarters of a shilling).	287	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	novel
The History of Civilization	1955-00-00	Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.	Fantasy Press				hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	omni
Die Planetenbasis	1960-00-00	E. E. Smith	Balowa / Gebrüder Zimmermann (Balowa Das galaktische Imperium #1)	239	DM 7.80^?DM: German (Deutsche) mark	269	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	novel
Die Planetenbasis	1961-11-10	E. E. Smith	Moewig (Terra #199)	199	DM 0.70^?DM: German (Deutsche) mark	64	digest^?Digest-size magazine, including both standard digest size, at about 7" by 4.5", and also large digest, such as recent issues of Asimov's, which are about 8.25" by 5.125".	novel	Johnny Bruck
Triplanetary	1965-08-00	E. E. Smith, Ph.D.	Pyramid Books	R-1222	$0.50^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1965-11-00	E. E. Smith, Ph.D.	Pyramid Books	R-1222	$0.50^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1966-07-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	X-1455	$0.60^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1967-09-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	X-1455	$0.60^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1968-05-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	X-1455	$0.60^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Die Planetenbasis	1969-01-00	Edward E. Smith	Heyne (Heyne Science Fiction & Fantasy #3704)	3704	DM 2.40^?DM: German (Deutsche) mark	220	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel
Triplanetary	1970-01-00	Edward E. Smith	Pyramid Books	T-2174	$0.75^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1970-01-00	Edward E. Smith	Pyramid Books	T-2174	C$0.75^?C$: Canadian dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1971-02-15	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	W. H. Allen	0-491-00157-6	£1.75^?£: UK pound	254	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	novel	Ken Reilly
Triplanetary	1972-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£0.30^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1972-02-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	511-02174	$0.75^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanétaire	1972-10-12	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Albin Michel (Albin Michel - Science-Fiction #7)			245	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel
Triplanetary	1973-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£0.35^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1973-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£0.35^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Die Planetenbasis	1973-00-00	Edward E. Smith	Heyne (Heyne Science Fiction & Fantasy #3704)	3704	DM 3.80^?DM: German (Deutsche) mark	221	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Karl Stephan
Triplanetary	1973-01-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	0-515-02890-8	$0.95^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1974-01-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	0-515-02890-8	$0.95^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1975-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£0.50^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1975-04-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	0-515-02890-8	$1.25^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1976-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£0.65^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1976-11-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pyramid Books	0-515-02890-8	$1.25^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1977-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther / Granada	0-586-03760-8	£0.65^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1978-05-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Jove / HBJ	0-515-04686-8	$1.50^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1979-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£0.85^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetária	1979-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Livros do Brasil (Argonauta #259)			260	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	A. Pedro
Triplanetary	1979-05-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Jove / HBJ	0-515-05331-7	$1.75^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	1982-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£1.50^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1982-07-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Berkley Books	0-425-05383-0	$2.50^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	David B. Mattingly
Triplanetary	1985-00-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Panther	0-586-03760-8	£1.95^?£: UK pound	254	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Chris Foss
Triplanetary	1986-08-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Berkley Books	0-425-09055-8	$2.95^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	David B. Mattingly
La saga dei Lensmen	1991-05-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Editrice Nord (Cosmo Serie Oro. Classici della Narrativa di Fantascienza #117)		Lit 18,000^?Lit: Italian lira	xvi+ 504	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	omni	David B. Mattingly
Triplanetary	1997-07-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Ripping Publishing	1-899884-12-2	£5.99^?£: UK pound	345	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Warren Palmer , Neil Stuart Lawson
Triplanetary: A Tale of Cosmic Adventure	1997-11-00	Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.	Old Earth Books	1-882968-09-3	$15.00^?$: US dollar	xv+ 287	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	novel	A. J. Donnell
Chronicles of the Lensmen, Volume I	1998-06-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Science Fiction Book Club	1-56865-804-4 / 17820	$14.98^?$: US dollar	709	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	omni	John Berkey
Triplanetary: A Tale of Cosmic Adventure	2002-00-00	Edward E. Smith, Ph.D.	Old Earth Books	1-882968-09-3	$15.00^?$: US dollar	xv+ 287	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	novel
Triplanetaria	2002-05-00	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Pulp Ediciones / Río Henares (Omean)	84-95741-11-3		271	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	novel	Pilar Fernández Moreno
Triplanetary	2005-02-00	Edward E. Smith	ibooks	1-4165-0408-7	$6.99^?$: US dollar	240	pb^?Paperback. Typically 7" by 4.25" (18 cm by 11 cm) or smaller, though trimming errors can cause them to sometimes be slightly (less than 1/4 extra inch) taller or wider/deeper.	novel	Raul Carvajal
The E. E. 'Doc' Smith Omnibus	2009-04-16	Edward E. Smith	PageTurner Editions / Renaissance E Books		$1.05^?$: US dollar	587	ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	omni	H. W. Wesso
Polygraff, v1 #1	2009-06-00	ed. Andrew Bernstein	Polymancer Studios		$4.95^?$: US dollar		unknown^?The publication record was created from a secondary source and the publication format is unknown.	mag	William McAusland
Polygraff, v1 #2	2010-01-00	ed. Andrew Bernstein	Polymancer Studios		$4.95^?$: US dollar		unknown^?The publication record was created from a secondary source and the publication format is unknown.	mag	John Bell
Polygraff, v1 #3	2010-04-00	ed. Andrew Bernstein	Polymancer Studios		$4.95^?$: US dollar		unknown^?The publication record was created from a secondary source and the publication format is unknown.	mag	Storn Cook
Triplanetary	2010-06-06	Edward E. Smith	Project Gutenberg	32706	$0.00^?$: US dollar		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	novel
Polygraff, v1 #4	2010-07-00	ed. Andrew Bernstein	Polymancer Studios		$4.95^?$: US dollar		unknown^?The publication record was created from a secondary source and the publication format is unknown.	mag	Storn Cook
Triplanetary, First in the Lensman Series	2011-10-11	Edward E. Smith	LibriVox		$0.00^?$: US dollar		digital audio download^?Digital recording in any format that is downloaded directly from the Internet. This category includes podcasts.	novel
Triplanetary	2013-02-28	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	CreateSpace	978-1-4826-6091-3	$8.99^?$: US dollar	184	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	novel
Triplanetary	2013-06-01	Edward E. Smith	Spastic Cat Press	978-1-4837-0183-7	$12.99^?$: US dollar	236	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	novel
Triplanetary	2014-02-15	Edward E. Smith	Armchair Fiction (Armchair Fiction Science Fiction Classics #C-54)	978-1-61287-190-5	$12.95^?$: US dollar	224	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	novel	Jack Gaughan
Triplanetary	2014-03-18	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Open Road Integrated Media (Open Road Media Sci-Fi & Fantasy)	978-1-4804-7744-5	$0.99^?$: US dollar		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	novel
The E. E. "Doc" Smith Megapack	2015-08-17	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Wildside Press (Megapack)	978-1-4794-0719-4	$0.99^?$: US dollar		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	omni	Luca Oleastri
Triplanetary	2017-02-28	Edward E. Smith	Project Gutenberg Canada	1405	C$0.00^?C$: Canadian dollar		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	novel
Die Planeten-Basis	2017-10-12	E. E. Smith	Apex (Apex-Science-Fiction-Klassiker #9)	978-3-7438-3598-6	€6.99^?€: Euro		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	novel
Sci-Fi Ultimate Collection	2018-12-21	uncredited	Musaicum Books / OK Publishing	978-80-272-4813-1	$0.99^?$: US dollar		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	omni
Sci-Fi Boxed Set: 160+ Space Adventures, Lost Worlds, Dystopian Novels & Apocalyptic Tales	2018-12-21	uncredited	Musaicum Books		$0.99^?$: US dollar		ebook^?Used for all electronic formats, including but not limited to EPUB, eReader, HTML, iBook, Mobipocket, and PDF.	omni
The Lensman Super Pack	2023-05-10	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Positronic Publishing (Positronic Super Pack #54)	978-1-5154-6085-5	$39.99^?$: US dollar	1182	hc^?Hardcover. Used for all hardbacks of any size.	omni
The Lensman Super Pack	2023-05-10	E. E. 'Doc' Smith	Positronic Publishing (Positronic Super Pack #54)	978-1-5154-6086-2	$34.99^?$: US dollar	1182	tp^?Trade paperback. Any softcover book which is at least 7.25" (or 19 cm) tall, or at least 4.5" (11.5 cm) wide/deep.	omni

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Reviews

Review by D. R. Smith (1948) in Fantasy Review, August-September 1948
Review by P. Schuyler Miller (1948) in Astounding Science Fiction, October 1948
Review by The Editor (1948) in Startling Stories, November 1948
Review by Sam Moskowitz (1949) in Fantastic Novels Magazine, July 1949
Review by Frederik Pohl (1949) in Super Science Stories, July 1949
Review by P. Schuyler Miller (1951) in Other Worlds Science Stories, December 1951
Review by Joseph H. Crawford, Jr. and James J. Donahue and Donald M. Grant (1953) in '333': A Bibliography of the Science-Fantasy Novel , reprinted in:
'333': A Bibliography of the Science-Fantasy Novel (1953)
Review by P. Schuyler Miller (1966) in Analog Science Fiction -> Science Fact, July 1966
Review [French] by Denis Philippe (1973) in Fiction, #232
Review by Baird Searles (1983) in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, January 1983
Review by Gene DeWeese (1983) in Science Fiction Review, Spring 1983
Review [Swedish] by Tommy Persson (1988) in Månblad Alfa, 2 1988
Review by Don D'Ammassa (1998) in Science Fiction Chronicle, #197 May-June 1998
Review by Thomas A. Easton [as by Tom Easton] (1998) in Analog Science Fiction and Fact, June 1998
Review by Everett F. Bleiler (1998) in Science-Fiction: The Gernsback Years (Reviews: pages 266-522, M-Z)
Review by Stephen E. Andrews and Nick Rennison (2006) in 100 Must-Read Science Fiction Novels, (2006) , reprinted in:
100 Must-Read Science Fiction Novels (2007)
100 Must-Read Science Fiction Novels (unknown)